Preface.
The names on the titlepage stand as representative of the two nations whose final contest for the control of North America is the subject of the book.
A very large amount of unpublished material has been used in its preparation, consisting for the most part of documents copied from the archives and libraries of France and England, especially from the Archives de la Marine et des Colonies, the Archives de la Guerre, and the Archives Nationales at Paris, and the Public Record Office and the British Museum at London, the papers copied for the present work in France alone exceed six thousand folio pages of manuscript, additional and supplementary to the "Paris Documents" procured for the State of New York under the agency of Mr. Brodhead, the copies made in England form ten volumes, besides many English documents consulted in the original manuscript. Great numbers of autograph letters, diaries, and other writings of persons engaged in the war have also been examined on this side of the Atlantic.
I owe to the kindness of the present Marquis de Montcalm the permission to copy all the letters written by his ancestor, General Montcalm, when in America, to members of his family in France. General Montcalm, from his first arrival in Canada to a few days before his death, also carried on an active correspondence with one of his chief officers, Bourlamaque, with whom he was on terms of intimacy. These autograph letters are now preserved in a private collection. I have examined them, and obtained copies of the whole. They form an interesting complement to the official correspondence of the writer, and throw the most curious side-lights on the persons and events of the time.
Besides manuscripts, the printed matter in the form of books, pamphlets, contemporary newspapers, and other publications relating to the American part of the Seven Years' War, is varied and abundant; and I believe I may safely say that nothing in it of much consequence has escaped me. The liberality of some of the older States of the Union, especially New York and Pennsylvania, in printing the voluminous records of their colonial history, has saved me a deal of tedious labor.
The whole of this published and unpublished mass of evidence has been read and collated with extreme care, and more than common pains have been taken to secure accuracy of statement. The study of books and papers, however, could not alone answer the purpose. The plan of the work was formed in early youth; and though various causes have long delayed its execution, it has always been kept in view. Meanwhile, I have visited and examined every spot where events of any importance in connection with the contest took place, and have observed with attention such scenes and persons as might help to illustrate those I meant to describe. In short, the subject has been studied as much from life and in the open air as at the library table.
These two volumes are a departure from chronological sequence. The period between 1700 and 1748 has been passed over for a time. When this gap is filled, the series of "France and England in North America" will form a continuous history of the French occupation of the continent.
BOSTON, Sept. 16, 1884.
Contents
Author's Introduction
CHAPTER I
1745-1755
The Combatants
England in the Eighteenth Century. Her Political and Social Aspects. Her Military Condition. France. Her Power and Importance. Signs of Decay. The Court, the Nobles, the Clergy, the People. The King and Pompadour. The Philosophers. Germany. Prussia. Frederic II. Russia. State of Europe. War of the Austrian Succession. American Colonies of France and England. Contrasted Systems and their Results. Canada. Its Strong Military Position. French Claims to the Continent. British Colonies. New England. Virginia. Pennsylvania. New York, Jealousies, Divisions, Internal Disputes, Military Weakness.
CHAPTER 2
1749-1752
Celoron de Bienville
La Galissoniere. English Encroachment. Mission of Celoron. The Great West. Its European Claimants. Its Indian Population. English Fur-Traders. Celoron on the Alleghany. His Reception. His Difficulties. Descent of the Ohio. Covert Hostility. Ascent of the Miami. La Demoiselle. Dark Prospects for France. Christopher Gist. George Croghan. Their Western Mission. Pickawillany. English Ascendency. English Dissension and Rivalry. The Key of the Great West.
CHAPTER 3
1749-1753
Conflict for the West
The Five Nations. Caughnawaga. Abbe Piquet. His Schemes. His Journey. Fort Frontenac. Toronto. Niagara. Oswego. Success of Piquet. Detroit. La Jonquiere. His Intrigues. His Trials. His Death. English Intrigues. Critical State of the West Pickawillany Destroyed. Duquesne. His Grand Enterprise.
CHAPTER 4
1710-1754
Conflict for Acadia
Acadia ceded to England. Acadians swear Fidelity. Halifax founded. French Intrigue. Acadian Priests. Mildness of English Rule. Covert Hostility of Acadians. The New Oath. Treachery of Versailles. Indians incited to War. Clerical Agents of Revot. Abbe Le Loutre. Acadians impelled to emigrate. Misery of the Emigrants. Humanity of Cornwallis and Hopson. Fanaticism and Violence of Le Loutre. Capture of the "St. Francois." The English at Beaubassin. Le Loutre drives out the Inhabitants. Murder of Howe. Beausejour. Insolence of Le Loutre. His Harshness to the Acadians. The Boundary Commission. Its Failure. Approaching War.
CHAPTER 5
1753, 1754
Washington
The French occupy the Sources of the Ohio. Their Sufferings. Fort Le Boeuf. Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Mission of Washington. Robert Dinwiddie. He opposes the French. His Dispute with the Burgesses. His Energy. His Appeals for Help. Fort Duquesne. Death of Jumonville. Washington at the Great Meadows. Coulon de Villiers. Fort Necessity.
CHAPTER 6
1754, 1755
The Signal of Battle
Troubles of Dinwiddie. Gathering of the Burgesses. Virginian Society. Refractory Legislators. The Quaker Assembly It refuses to resist the French. Apathy of New York. Shirley and the General Court of Massachusetts. Short-sighted Policy. Attitude of Royal Governors. Indian Allies waver. Convention at Albany. Scheme of Union. It fails. Dinwiddie and Glen. Dinwiddie calls on England for Help. The Duke of Newcastle. Weakness of the British Cabinet. Attitude of France. Mutual Dissimulation. Both Powers send Troops to America. Collision. Capture of the "Alcide" and the "Lis."
CHAPTER 7
1755
Braddock
Arrival of Braddock. His Character. Council at Alexandria. Plan of the Campaign. Apathy of the Colonists. Rage of Braddock. Franklin. Fort Cumberland. Composition of the Army. Offended Friends. The March. The French Fort. Savage Allies. The Captive. Beaujeu. He goes to meet the English. Passage of the Monongahela. The Surprise. The Battle. Rout of Braddock. His Death. Indian Ferocity. Reception of the Ill News. Weakness of Dunbar. The Frontier abandoned.
CHAPTER 8
1755-1763
Removal of the Acadians
State of Acadia. Threatened Invasion. Peril of the English. Their Plans. French Forts to be attacked. Beausejour and its Occupants. French Treatment of the Acadians. John Winslow. Siege and Capture of Beausejour. Attitude of Acadians. Influence of their Priests. They refuse the Oath of Allegiance. Their Condition and Character. Pretended Neutrals. Moderation of English Authorities. The Acadians persist in their Refusal. Enemies or Subjects? Choice of the Acadians. The Consequence. Their Removal determined. Winslow at Grand Pre. Conference with Murray. Summons to the Inhabitants. Their Seizure. Their Embarkation. Their Fate. Their Treatment in Canada. Misapprehension concerning them.
CHAPTER 9
1755
Dieskau
Expedition against Crown Point. William Johnson. Vaudreuil. Dieskau. Johnson and the Indians. The Provincial Army. Doubts and Delays. March to Lake George. Sunday in Camp. Advance of Dieskau. He changes Plan. Marches against Johnson. Ambush. Rout of Provincials. Battle of Lake George. Rout of the French. Rage of the Mohawks. Peril of Dieskau. Inaction of Johnson. The Homeward March. Laurels of Victory.
CHAPTER 10
1755, 1756
Shirley. Border War
The Niagara Campaign. Albany. March to Oswego. Difficulties. The Expedition abandoned. Shirley and Johnson. Results of the Campaign. The Scourge of the Border. Trials of Washington. Misery of the Settlers. Horror of their Situation. Philadelphia and the Quakers. Disputes with the Penns. Democracy and Feudalism. Pennsylvanian Population. Appeals from the Frontier. Quarrel of Governor and Assembly. Help refused. Desperation of the Borderers. Fire and Slaughter. The Assembly alarmed. They pass a mock Militia Law. They are forced to yield.
CHAPTER 11
1712-1756
Montcalm
War declared. State of Europe. Pompadour and Maria Theresa. Infatuation of the French Court. The European War. Montcalm to command in America. His early Life. An intractable Pupil. His Marriage. His Family. His Campaigns. Preparation for America. His Associates. Levis, Bourlamaque, Bougainville. Embarkation. The Voyage. Arrival. Vaudreuil. Forces of Canada. Troops of the Line, Colony Troops, Militia, Indians. The Military Situation. Capture of Fort Bull. Montcalm at Ticonderoga.
CHAPTER 12
1756
Oswego
The new Campaign. Untimely Change of Commanders. Eclipse of Shirley. Earl of Loudon. Muster of Provincials. New England Levies. Winslow at Lake George. Johnson and the Five Nations. Bradstreet and his Boatmen. Fight on the Onondaga. Pestilence at Oswego. Loudon and the Provincials. New England Camps. Army Chaplains. A sudden Blow. Montcalm attacks Oswego. Its Fall.
CHAPTER 13
1756, 1757
Partisan War
Failure of Shirley's Plan. Causes. Loudon and Shirley. Close of the Campaign. The Western Border. Armstrong destroys Kittanning. The Scouts of Lake George War Parties from Ticonderoga. Robert Rogers. The Rangers. Their Hardihood and Daring. Disputes as to Quarters of Troops. Expedition of Rogers. A Desperate Bush-fight. Enterprise of Vaudreuil. Rigaud attacks Fort William Henry.
CHAPTER 14
1757
Montcalm and Vaudreuil
The Seat of War. Social Life at Montreal. Familiar Correspondence of Montcalm. His Employments. His Impressions of Canada. His Hospitalities. Misunderstandings with the Governor. Character of Vaudreuil. His Accusations. Frenchmen and Canadians. Foibles of Montcalm. The opening Campaign. Doubts and Suspense. London's Plan. His Character. Fatal Delays. Abortive Attempt against Louisbourg. Disaster to the British Fleet.
CHAPTER 15
1757
Fort William Henry
Another Blow. The War-song. The Army at Ticonderoga. Indian Allies. The War-feast. Treatment of Prisoners. Cannibalism. Surprise and Slaughter. The War Council. March of Levis. The Army embarks. Fort William Henry. Nocturnal Scene. Indian Funeral. Advance upon the Fort. General Webb. His Difficulties. His Weakness. The Siege begun. Conduct of the Indians. The Intercepted Letter. Desperate Position of the Besieged. Capitulation. Ferocity of the Indians. Mission of Bougainville. Murder of Wounded Men. A Scene of Terror. The Massacre. Efforts of Montcalm. The Fort burned.
CHAPTER 16
1757, 1758
A Winter of Discontent
Boasts of Loudon. A Mutinous Militia. Panic. Accusations of Vaudreuil. His Weakness. Indian Barbarities. Destruction of German Flats. Discontent of Montcalm. Festivities at Montreal. Montcalm's Relations with the Governor. Famine. Riots. Mutiny. Winter at Ticonderoga. A desperate Bush-fight. Defeat of the Rangers. Adventures of Roche and Pringle.
CHAPTER 17
1753-1760
Bigot
His Life and Character. Canadian Society. Official Festivities. A Party of Pleasure. Hospitalities of Bigot. Desperate Gambling. Chateau Bigot. Canadian Ladies. Cadet. La Friponne. Official Rascality. Methods of Peculation. Cruel Frauds on the Acadians. Military Corruption. Pean. Love and Knavery. Varin and his Partners. Vaudreuil and the Peculators. He defends Bigot; praises Cadet and Pean. Canadian Finances. Peril of Bigot. Threats of the Minister. Evidence of Montcalm. Impending Ruin of the Confederates.
CHAPTER 18
1757, 1758
Pitt
Frederic of Prussia. The Coalition against him. His desperate Position. Rossbach. Leuthen. Reverses of England. Weakness of the Ministry. A Change. Pitt and Newcastle. Character of Pitt. Sources of his Power. His Aims. Louis XV. Pompadour. She controls the Court, and directs the War. Gloomy Prospects of England. Disasters. The New Ministry. Inspiring Influence of Pitt. The Tide turns. British Victories. Pitt's Plans for America. Louisbourg, Ticonderoga, Duquesne. New Commanders. Naval Battles.
CHAPTER 19
1758
Louisbourg
Condition of the Fortress. Arrival of the English. Gallantry of Wolfe. The English Camp. The Siege begun. Progress of the Besiegers. Sallies of the French. Madame Drucour. Courtesies of War. French Ships destroyed. Conflagration. Fury of the Bombardment. Exploit of English Sailors. The End near. The White Flag. Surrender. Reception of the News in England and America. Wolfe not satisfied. His Letters to Amherst. He destroys Gaspe. Returns to England.
CHAPTER 20
1758
Ticonderoga
Activity of the Provinces. Sacrifices of Massachusetts. The Army at Lake George. Proposed Incursion of Levis. Perplexities of Montcalm. His Plan of Defence. Camp of Abercromby. His Character. Lord Howe, His Popularity. Embarkation of Abercromby. Advance down Lake George. Landing. Forest Skirmish. Death of Howe. Its Effects. Position of the French. The Lines of Ticonderoga. Blunders of Abercromby. The Assault. A Frightful Scene. Incidents of the Battle. British Repulse. Panic. Retreat Triumph of Montcalm.
CHAPTER 21
1758
Fort Frontenac
The Routed Army. Indignation at Abercromby. John Cleaveland and his Brother Chaplains. Regulars and Provincials. Provincial Surgeons. French Raids. Rogers defeats Marin. Adventures of Putnam. Expedition of Bradstreet. Capture of Fort Frontenac.
CHAPTER 22
1758
Fort Duquesne
Dinwiddie and Washington. Brigadier Forbes. His Army. Conflicting Views. Difficulties. Illness of Forbes. His Sufferings. His Fortitude. His Difference with Washington. Sir John Sinclair. Troublesome Allies. Scouting Parties. Boasts of Vaudreuil. Forbes and the Indians. Mission of Christian Frederic Post. Council of Peace. Second Mission of Post. Defeat of Grant. Distress of Forbes. Dark Prospects. Advance of the Army. Capture of the French Fort. The Slain of Braddock's Field. Death of Forbes.
CHAPTER 23
1758, 1759
The Brink of Ruin
Jealousy of Vaudreuil. He asks for Montcalm's Recall. His Discomfiture. Scene at the Governor's House. Disgust of Montcalm. The Canadians Despondent. Devices to encourage them. Gasconade of the Governor. Deplorable State of the Colony. Mission of Bougainville. Duplicity of Vaudreuil. Bougainville at Versailles. Substantial Aid refused to Canada. A Matrimonial Treaty. Return of Bougainville. Montcalm abandoned by the Court. His Plans of Defence. Sad News from Candiac. Promises of Vaudreuil.
CHAPTER 24
1758, 1759
Wolfe
The Exiles of Fort Cumberland. Relief. The Voyage to Louisbourg. The British Fleet. Expedition against Quebec. Early Life of Wolfe. His Character. His Letters to his Parents. His Domestic Qualities. Appointed to command the Expedition. Sails for America.
CHAPTER 25
1759
Wolfe at Quebec
French Preparation. Muster of Forces. Gasconade of Vaudreuil. Plan of Defence. Strength of Montcalm. Advance of Wolfe. British Sailors. Landing of the English. Difficulties before them. Storm. Fireships. Confidence of French Commanders. Wolfe occupies Point Levi. A Futile Night Attack. Quebec bombarded. Wolfe at the Montmorenci. Skirmishes. Danger of the English Position. Effects of the Bombardment. Desertion of Canadians. The English above Quebec. Severities of Wolfe. Another Attempt to burn the Fleet. Desperate Enterprise of Wolfe. The Heights of Montmorenci. Repulse of the English.
CHAPTER 26
1759
Amherst. Niagara
Amherst on Lake George. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Delays of Amherst. Niagara Expedition. La Corne attacks Oswego. His Repulse. Niagara besieged. Aubry comes to its Relief. Battle. Rout of the French. The Fort taken. Isle-aux-Noix. Amherst advances to attack it. Storm. The Enterprise abandoned, Rogers attacks St. Francis. Destroys the Town. Sufferings of the Rangers.
CHAPTER 27
1759
The Heights of Abraham
Elation of the French. Despondency of Wolfe. The Parishes laid waste. Operations above Quebec. Illness of Wolfe. A New Plan of Attack. Faint Hope of Success. Wolfe's Last Despatch. Confidence of Vaudreuil. Last Letters of Montcalm. French Vigilance. British Squadron at Cap-Rouge. Last Orders of Wolfe. Embarkation. Descent of the St. Lawrence. The Heights scaled. The British Line. Last Night of Montcalm. The Alarm. March of French Troops. The Battle. The Rout. The Pursuit. Fall of Wolfe and of Montcalm.
CHAPTER 28
1759
Fall of Quebec
After the Battle. Canadians resist the Pursuit. Arrival of Vaudreuil. Scene in the Redoubt. Panic. Movements of the Victors. Vaudreuil's Council of War. Precipitate Retreat of the French Army. Last Hours of Montcalm. His Death and Burial. Quebec abandoned to its Fate. Despair of the Garrison. Levis joins the Army. Attempts to relieve the Town. Surrender. The British occupy Quebec. Slanders of Vaudreuil. Reception in England of the News of Wolfe's Victory and Death. Prediction of Jonathan Mayhew.
CHAPTER 29
1759, 1760
Sainte-Foy
Quebec after the Siege. Captain Knox and the Nuns. Escape of French Ships. Winter at Quebec. Threats of Levis. Attacks. Skirmishes. Feat of the Rangers. State of the Garrison. The French prepare to retake Quebec. Advance of Levis. The Alarm. Sortie of the English. Rash Determination of Murray. Battle of Ste.-Foy. Retreat of the English. Levis besieges Quebec. Spirit of the Garrison. Peril of their Situation. Relief. Quebec saved. Retreat of Levis. The News in England.
CHAPTER 30
1760
Fall of Canada
Desperate Situation. Efforts of Vaudreuil and Levis. Plans of Amherst. A Triple Attack. Advance of Murray. Advance of Haviland. Advance of Amherst. Capitulation of Montreal. Protest of Levis. Injustice of Louis XV. Joy in the British Colonies. Character of the War.
CHAPTER 31
1758-1763
The Peace of Paris
Exodus of Canadian Leaders. Wreck of the "Auguste." Trial of Bigot and his Confederates. Frederic of Prussia. His Triumphs. His Reverses. His Peril. His Fortitude. Death of George II. Change of Policy. Choiseul. His Overtures of Peace. The Family Compact. Fall of Pitt. Death of the Czarina. Frederic saved. War with Spain. Capture of Havana. Negotiations. Terms of Peace. Shall Canada be restored? Speech of Pitt. The Treaty signed. End of the Seven Years War.
CHAPTER 32
1763-1884
Conclusion
Results of the War. Germany. France. England. Canada. The British Provinces.
Appendix
Index
Author's Introduction
It is the nature of great events to obscure the great events that came before them. The Seven Years War in Europe is seen but dimly through revolutionary convulsions and Napoleonic tempests; and the same contest in America is half lost to sight behind the storm-cloud of the War of Independence. Few at this day see the momentous issues involved in it, or the greatness of the danger that it averted. The strife that armed all the civilized world began here. "Such was the complication of political interests," says Voltaire, "that a cannon-shot fired in America could give the signal that set Europe in a blaze." Not quite. It was not a cannon-shot, but a volley from the hunting-pieces of a few backwoodsmen, commanded by a Virginian youth, George Washington.
To us of this day, the result of the American part of the war seems a foregone conclusion. It was far from being so; and very far from being so regarded by our forefathers. The numerical superiority of the British colonies was offset by organic weaknesses fatal to vigorous and united action. Nor at the outset did they, or the mother-country, aim at conquering Canada, but only at pushing back her boundaries. Canada - using the name in its restricted sense - was a position of great strength; and even when her dependencies were overcome, she could hold her own against forces far superior. Armies could reach her only by three routes, - the Lower St. Lawrence on the east, the Upper St. Lawrence on the west, and Lake Champlain on the south. The first access was guarded by a fortress almost impregnable by nature, and the second by a long chain of dangerous rapids; while the third offered a series of points easy to defend. During this same war, Frederic of Prussia held his ground triumphantly against greater odds, though his kingdom was open on all sides to attack.
It was the fatuity of Louis XV. and his Pompadour that made the conquest of Canada possible. Had they not broken the traditionary policy of France, allied themselves to Austria, her ancient enemy, and plunged needlessly into the European war, the whole force of the kingdom would have been turned, from the first, to the humbling of England and the defence of the French colonies. The French soldiers left dead on inglorious Continental battle-fields could have saved Canada, and perhaps made good her claim to the vast territories of the West.
But there were other contingencies. The possession of Canada was a question of diplomacy as well as of war. If England conquered her, she might restore her, as she had lately restored Cape Breton. She had an interest in keeping France alive on the American continent. More than one clear eye saw, at the middle of the last century, that the subjection of Canada would lead to a revolt of the British colonies. So long as an active and enterprising enemy threatened their borders, they could not break with the mother-country, because they needed her help. And if the arms of France had prospered in the other hemisphere; if she had gained in Europe or Asia territories with which to buy back what she had lost in America, then, in all likelihood, Canada would have passed again into her hands.
The most momentous and far-reaching question ever brought to issue on this continent was: Shall France remain here, or shall she not? If, by diplomacy or war, she had preserved but the half, or less than the half, of her American possessions, then a barrier would have been set to the spread of the English-speaking races; there would have been no Revolutionary War; and for a long time, at least, no independence. It was not a question of scanty populations strung along the banks of the St. Lawrence; it was - or under a government of any worth it would have been - a question of the armies and generals of France. America owes much to the imbecility of Louis XV. and the ambitious vanity and personal dislikes of his mistress.
The Seven Years War made England what she is. It crippled the commerce of her rival, ruined France in two continents, and blighted her as a colonial power. It gave England the control of the seas and the mastery of North America and India, made her the first of commercial nations, and prepared that vast colonial system that has planted new Englands in every quarter of the globe. And while it made England what she is, it supplied to the United States the indispensable condition of their greatness, if not of their national existence.
Before entering on the story of the great contest, we will look at the parties to it on both sides of the Atlantic.
Montcalm and Wolfe